history of Azerbaijan

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William H. Sewell Jr. Distinguished University Professor of History, University of Michigan. Author of “They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else”: A History of the Armenian Genocide, The.

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history of Azerbaijan, history of Azerbaijan from ancient times to the present.

In ancient and early medieval times, eastern Transcaucasia was populated by Iranian speakers, nomadic Turkic tribes, Kurds, and the Caucasian Albanians, who converted to Christianity in the 4th century and came under the cultural influence of the Armenians. After Arab incursions in the 7th century, Islamic polities were established under local rulers called shāhanshāhs. The Seljuq invasions in the 11th century changed the composition of the local population and resulted in the linguistic dominance of Oghuz Turkic languages. But, unlike the Ottoman Turks who came to dominate Anatolia, the Caucasian Muslims of Azerbaijan in the early 16th century became Shiʿi, rather than Sunni, Muslims, and they continued to develop under Persian social and cultural influence. Persian-ruled khanates in Shirvan (Şamaxı), Baku, Ganja (Gäncä), Karabakh, and Yerevan dominated this frontier of Ṣafavid Iran.

Russian suzerainty

After a series of wars between the Russian Empire and Iran, the treaties of Golestān (Gulistan; 1813) and Turkmenchay (Torkmānchāy; 1828) established a new border between the empires. Russia acquired Baku, Shirvan, Ganja, Nakhichevan (Naxçıvan), and Yerevan. Henceforth the Azerbaijani Turks of Caucasia were separated from the majority of their linguistic and religious compatriots, who remained in Iran. Azerbaijanis on both sides of the border remained largely rural, though a small merchant class and working class appeared in the second half of the 19th century. As Baku became the major source of oil for Russia, tens of thousands of Iranian, Armenian, and Russian workers streamed to the Abşeron Peninsula in search of employment, and Russian economic and political influence could be felt in both parts of Azerbaijan. As the source of employment and the home of the nascent Azerbaijani intelligentsia and revolutionary movement, Baku radiated its influence in Iranian Azerbaijan as well as north of the Aras (Araz) River. No specifically Azerbaijani state existed before 1918, and, rather than seeing themselves as part of a continuous national tradition, like the Georgians and Armenians, the Muslims of Transcaucasia saw themselves as part of the larger Muslim world, the ummah. They were referred to as “Tatars” by the Russians; the ethnonym Azerbaijani (azarbayjanli) came into use in the prerevolutionary decades at first among urban nationalist intellectuals. Only in the Soviet period did it become the official and widely accepted name for this people.

Incorporation into the Russian Empire provided a new outlet for educated Azerbaijanis, some of whom turned from their religious upbringing to a more secular outlook. Prominent among the early scholars and publicists who began the study of the Azerbaijani language were ʿAbbās Qolī Āghā Bāqıkhānlı (Bakikhanov), who wrote poetry as well as histories of the region, and Mīrzā Fatḥ ʿAlī Ākhūndzādeh (Akhundov), author of the first Azerbaijani plays. Though eventually these figures would be incorporated into a national narrative as predecessors of the Turkic revival, a variety of conflicting impulses stimulated early Azerbaijani intellectuals—loyalty to the tsarist empire, the continuing influence of Persian culture, and a longing for Western learning. Although no single coherent ideology or movement characterized the Azerbaijani intelligentsia, by 1905 a growing number of writers and journalists adopted the program of the nationalist intellectual ʿAlī Bay Huseynzadeh: “Turkify, Islamicize, Europeanize” (“Turklashtirmak, Islamlashtirmak, Avrupalashtirmak”).

The town of Baku, which by 1901 produced more than half of the world’s output of petroleum, was complexly segregated, with Russians and Armenians in the central part of the town and Muslims clustered in distinct districts. As social resentments festered, particularly in times of political uncertainty, ethnic and religious differences defined the battle lines; bloody clashes between Azerbaijanis and local Armenians took place in 1905 and 1918. A hierarchy of skills, education, and wages placed Muslims on the bottom and Christians at the top. By virtue of a quota on non-Christian representation and a system of suffrage based on property holdings, the Baku city duma (legislative council) remained in the hands of wealthy Armenians and Russians. Azerbaijanis remained on the fringe of the labour movement and were indifferent to or ignorant of the aspirations of both their socialist and nationalist intellectuals. None of the small parties and political groups that arose after 1905 commanded much of a following beyond the intelligentsia, though Musavat (“Equality”), founded in 1911 and led by Mehmed Emin Rasulzadeh, proved most enduring. Anxiety about the Armenian “threat,” a perception of their own distance from and hostility to this privileged element within their midst, and a feeling that Azerbaijanis were connected in important ways to other Muslims, particularly Turks, became part of an Azerbaijani sense of self.

Independent Azerbaijan

With the Bolshevik victory in the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the withdrawal of Russian troops from the Caucasian front during World War I (1914–18), Azerbaijani leaders joined Armenians and Georgians in a brief experiment in Transcaucasian autonomy (February to April 1918). An even briefer attempt at unity in an independent federative republic of Transcaucasia (April to May) fell apart, and finally three separate independent republics were established. Azerbaijan was declared an independent state on May 28, 1918, but Baku remained in the hands of a communist government, assisted by local Armenian soldiers, who had put down a Muslim revolt in March. Allied with the advancing Turkish army, in September 1918 the Azerbaijani nationalists secured their capital, Baku, and engaged in a massacre of the Armenians.

However, even as they secured control of Baku, the Azerbaijani nationalists were faced with a mixed population of Russian, Armenian, and Muslim workers who had undergone a long socialist and trade-unionist education. Among the peasantry on whom they depended, national consciousness was still largely absent, and the nationalists were never fully secure in Baku, where Bolshevism had deep roots. With the end of World War I, the Turks withdrew; they were replaced by the British, who remained until August 1919. The fragile republic received de facto recognition from the Allies on January 15, 1920, but when the Red Army marched into Baku in April 1920 there was little resistance.

The Soviet and post-Soviet periods

The Azerbaijani Soviet Socialist Republic lasted 71 years. It was part of the Transcaucasian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic from 1922 until 1936 and, like Georgia and Armenia, it experienced considerable economic development, urbanization, and industrialization. Although education in Azerbaijan was promoted and Azerbaijanis were placed in positions of power, the republic was tightly controlled by Moscow, especially during the years of Joseph Stalin’s rule (1928–53) when M.A. Bagirov headed the Azerbaijani Communist Party. Becoming a more urban, educated, and socially mobile society, Azerbaijan was divided between more traditional, underdeveloped rural areas and the cosmopolitan city of Baku. After the death of Stalin, the republic enjoyed somewhat greater autonomy, and the national political and intellectual elites flourished.

Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, dissolution of the Soviet Union, and presidency of Heydar Aliyev

When conflict with the Armenians of the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Region within Azerbaijan broke out in February 1988, these elites provided the leaders both for the oppositional Azerbaijan Popular Front and for their communist opponents. Violent protests and interethnic clashes targeting both Armenians and Azerbaijanis in the late 1980s, anti-Armenian pogroms in Sumgait in 1988 and in Baku in 1990, as well as continual warfare between the Azerbaijanis and the Armenians of Nagorno-Karabakh, led to military action by Moscow against the republic in January 1990. With the dissolution of the Soviet Union late the following year, the Republic of Nagorno-Karabakh was declared; following a referendum indicating popular support for independence, as well as an election in December, the republic’s independence was officially proclaimed in the first days of 1992, a move unrecognized by the international community. The full-scale conflict that exploded between the Armenians in Nagorno-Karabakh and the Azerbaijanis shortly thereafter was finally halted by a 1994 cease-fire, which, though periodically violated, largely managed to hold.

The Communist Party of Azerbaijan retained its power until 1992. After the abortive coup against the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev in Moscow in August 1991, Azerbaijan declared itself independent, and the head of the party, Ayaz Mutalibov, was elected its first president. In May 1992 the Azerbaijan Popular Front overthrew Mutalibov and forced new elections, in which its candidate, Abulfez Elchibey, emerged victorious on a platform of separating from the Commonwealth of Independent States and maintaining control over Nagorno-Karabakh. Elchibey was himself overthrown in June 1993 by Heydar Aliyev, a former KGB official and leader of the Azerbaijani Communist Party who had adopted the rhetoric of Azerbaijani nationalism.

Over the next decade, the Aliyev government maintained control—reportedly through intimidation of the press and opposition groups and through manipulation of elections—but was unable to resolve the conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh, despite numerous summit meetings between Aliyev and Armenian leaders. Complicating the discussions was the 1992 declaration of independence that had been issued by the self-proclaimed Republic of Nagorno-Karabakh. The enclave held periodic elections thereafter, the results of which were soundly rejected by Azerbaijan as illegal under international law. In addition, the fighting in Nagorno-Karabakh resulted in the displacement of substantial populations of both Armenians and Azerbaijanis, and, by the time of the 1994 cease-fire, the Nagorno-Karabakh Armenians had expanded their hold over Azerbaijani territory.

At the beginning of the 21st century, roughly one-seventh of Azerbaijan’s territory remained outside its control, and significant populations remained displaced, particularly in the case of the Azerbaijanis, many of whom also remained displaced internally. Tensions were further inflamed in the late 1990s by the appointment of a former president of Nagorno-Karabakh to the post of prime minister in Armenia; in Azerbaijan the move was largely viewed as a deliberate provocation, and talks were hampered further. Relations were also strained with Russia, which felt that the government in Azerbaijan was doing little to stop Chechen rebels from operating out of Azerbaijani territory.

Presidency of Ilham Aliyev

In the meantime, oil revenues in Azerbaijan began to soar, as new fields were discovered and new contracts were signed with Western companies for their exploitation. In 2003 the elderly Aliyev died and was succeeded by his son, Ilham, whom Aliyev had been grooming for succession. Scandalized by the apparent accession to power of a hereditary line, opposition political groups staged a series of violent protests that failed to keep the younger Aliyev from the presidency. During the course of his term, Aliyev directed income from the boom in Caspian oil in part toward developing Azerbaijani military capacity, which in 2006 was described as nearing the capability needed to challenge the forces in Nagorno-Karabakh. That same year, Nagorno-Karabakh passed a referendum approving a new constitution, and, in the year that followed, it held its fourth round of elections. Though leadership in the disputed region had hoped that such shows of democratic rule would support the territory’s claim to sovereignty, neither Azerbaijan nor the remainder of the international community recognized the region’s claims to independence. Efforts to resolve the conflict continued, and in November 2008 Aliyev signed an agreement with Armenian Pres. Serzh Sarkisyan that pledged to intensify the countries’ efforts to settle the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict.

Aliyev secured election to a second term in the presidential vote of October 2008 amid an opposition boycott against the election’s restrictive measures. International observers indicated concerns that the proceedings were not sufficiently free and fair, partly because of media restrictions and a lack of robust competition. In early 2009 a series of constitutional amendments meant to consolidate Aliyev’s position were passed by referendum. Among their provisions were the removal of the two-term limit on the presidency, which would allow Aliyev to run for a third term in the coming years, as well as new restrictions on the media.

Aliyev won a third term as president in October 2013, taking nearly 85 percent of the vote, which the opposition decried as marred by fraud. The election took place amid an intensifying crackdown on independent media and political activity: in the months preceding and following the election there were numerous reports of journalists and activists being harassed, detained, and arrested.

The passage of a referendum on a package of constitutional amendments in September 2016 furthered the perception that Aliyev was seeking to tighten his own hold on power and install members of his family in senior positions in the government. One amendment lengthened the president’s term in office from five years to seven, and another created two vice presidential posts, to be filled by presidential appointees who would take over presidential powers, instead of the prime minister doing so, if the president became incapacitated. A third amendment, abolishing the minimum age for presidential candidates and lowering the age for candidates for the legislature, was seen by some as part of an effort to prepare a path into politics for Aliyev’s 19-year-old son. In 2017 Aliyev appointed his wife, Mehriban, to one of the newly created vice presidential posts. Aliyev was reelected to a fourth term in April 2018 in an election that, in spite of being boycotted by the main opposition parties, had a high turnout.

A new government in Armenia offered a fresh start in negotiations over Nagorno-Karabakh. A number of high-level meetings in early 2019 culminated in late March with a meeting between Aliyev and Armenian Prime Minister Nikol Pashinyan, which the two parties deemed constructive.

Diplomacy broke down in 2020, however, and escalating tension led to renewed conflict. In September Nagorno-Karabakh saw its most intense and destructive fighting since the 1990s, fueled in part by support from Turkey to Azerbaijan. On November 9, the day after Azerbaijan captured the region’s second-largest city, Shusha (Şuşa), Pashinyan agreed to a cease-fire deal that included the withdrawal of Armenian armed forces from the region. While Russian peacekeepers would guard much of Nagorno-Karabakh as part of the deal, Azerbaijan was given full control over the areas it captured during the conflict as well as the districts of Ağdam, Kälbäjär, and Laçin.

История Азербайджана

Первые государственные формирования на территории Азербайджана возникли еще начиная с конца IV, начала III тысячелетия до нашей эры. В I тысячелетии до нашей эры здесь существовали Манна, Иским, Скит, Скиф и такие сильные государства как Кавказская Албания и Атропатена. Эти государства играли большую роль в повышении культуры государственного управления, в истории экономической культуры страны, а также в процессе формирования единого народа.

В III веке н.э. Азербайджан оккупировала империя Иранских Сасанидов, а в VII веке – Арабский Халифат. Оккупанты переселили в страну многочисленное население иранского и арабского происхождения. С принятием исламской религии в VII веке история Азербайджана претерпела коренной перелом. Ислам дал сильный толчок формированию единого народа, языка, обычаев и пр. среди тюркских и нетюркских народов на территории Азербайджана.

В Азербайджане начался новый политический подъем: на землях Азербайджана, на которых был распространен ислам, были созданы государства Саджидов, Ширваншахов, Саларидов, Раввадидов и Шеддадидов. Началась эпоха Возрождения в азербайджанской истории. В конце XV – начале XVI веков начинается новая веха в истории Азербайджана. Выдающийся государственный деятель Шах Исмаил Хатаи сумел объединить под своим руководством все северные и южные земли Азербайджана. Образовалось единое Сефевидское государство со столицей в Тебризе, превратившееся со временем в одну из самых могущественных империй Ближнего и Среднего Востока.

Пришедший к власти после падения Сефевидского государства выдающийся азербайджанский полководец Надир-шах еще более расширил границы бывшей Сефевидской империи. Этот правитель Азербайджана в 1739 году завоевал Северную Индию, включая Дели. Однако, после смерти Надир-шаха, управляемая им империя пала. Таким образом, во второй половине XVIII века Азербайджан распался на малые государства – ханства и султанаты.

В конце XVIII века в Иране к власти пришли Гаджары, являющиеся азербайджанской династией. Они стали внедрять политику подчинения всех территорий, бывших под правлением Надир-шаха, в том числе и азербайджанских ханств, централизованному правлению. Так началась эпоха многолетних войн между Гаджарами и стремящейся захватить Южный Кавказ Россией. В итоге, на основании Гюлюстанского (1813) и Туркменчайского (1828) договоров, Aзербайджан был разделен между двумя империями: Северный Азербайджан был присоединен к России, а Южный – к Ирану.

28 апреля 1920 года было объявлено о создании на территории АДР – Азербайджанской Советской Социалистической Республики (Азербайджанской ССР). В декабре 1922 г Азербайджан, Грузия и Армения образовали Закавказскую Социалистическую Федеративную Советскую Республику. В 1922 она вошла в состав СССР, а в 1936 года ЗСФСР была распущена, а Азербайджанская ССР была включена в состав СССР как самостоятельная республика, просуществовавшая до 1991 года.

30 августа 1991 г . Азербайджан провозгласил независимость.

§ 4. Перші українські партії і політичні організації

Політична партія – це організація, яка відстоює свої інтереси та бореться за владу. Перші українські політичні партії виникли на території Західної України. Ще в кінці XIX (19) століття Іван Франко разом зі своїми однодумцями заснував Українську радикальну партію. Члени цієї партії боролися за отримання західноукраїнськими землями широкої автономії. Автономія – це право самостійного управління у певній частині держави.

Іван Франко

У 1900 році в Харкові було створено Революційну українську партію (РУП). Її засновниками були Дмитро Антонович з товаришами. Партійці вважали своєю головною метою боротьбу за створення незалежної української держави. Для досягнення своєї мети вони пропонували використовувати насильницькі методи боротьби. Найбільш популярними лозунгами цієї партії були: «Хто не з нами, той проти нас», «Ми візьмемо силою те, що нам належить», «Україна для українців» та інші.

Попри агресивну риторику, члени Революційної української партії дотримувалися мирної форми політичної діяльності. Свою пропаганду вони проводили переважно на Лівобережній Україні. Партійці друкували та розповсюджували численні брошури та нелегальні періодичні видання – газету «Селянин» і журнал «Гасло». Свою діяльність члени Революційної української партії здійснювали серед селян. Це й стало причиною селянських виступів проти поміщиків у 1902 році на Полтавщині й Харківщині.

Через два роки в лавах Революційної української партії відбувся розкол. На її основі було утворено декілька політичних партій.

Дмитро Антонович

У 1900 році в Києві була заснована ще одна організація – Українська соціалістична партія (УСП). Її засновником та головним ідеологом був Богдан Ярошевський. Ця партія виступала за революційне знищення царизму. Важливим напрямком діяльності Української соціалістичної партії було створення умов для побудови Української республіки на демократичних засадах. Члени цієї партії відстоювали ідеї повної рівноправності всіх людей, які мешкають на території України. Вони пропагували свободу слова, друку та зібрань. Виступали за поступову ліквідацію приватної власності на землю та засоби виробництва шляхом створення колективних господарств.

У 1908 році в Києві для об’єднання зусиль всіх українських партій у боротьбі за національну автономію України та політичні права громадян було створено Товариство українських поступовців (ТУП). По всій Україні діяли осередки Товариства – громади. Їх нараховувалося близько 60. На щорічних таємних з’їздах обговорювали важливі політичні питання. Свої зусилля члени Товариства спрямовували на розвиток освіти та культури шляхом розповсюдження серед населення українських книг та періодичних видань, вимог навчання дітей рідною мовою у школах тощо.

Запам’ятайте

• Політична партія – це організація, яка відстоює свої політичні інтереси та бореться за владу.
• Автономія – право самостійного управління у певній частині держави.
• Українська радикальна партія – перша політична організація на західноукраїнських землях.
• Революційна українська партія – перша політична організація на українських землях, які входили до Російської імперії.
• 1900 р. – заснування Революційної української партії.
• 1900 р. – заснування Української соціалістичної партії.
• 1908 р. – заснування Товариства українських поступовців.

• Іван Франко – один із засновників Української радикальної партії.
• Дмитро Антонович – один із засновників Революційної української партії.
• Богдан Ярошевський – засновник Української соціалістичної партії.

З історичних джерел

З програми Революційної української партії (1900 р.)

«І от посеред таких лихих обставин ми зійшлися до купи, ми згромадилися в одну сім’ю, перейняті великим болем та жалем до тих страждань, що наповнили народну душу, і. ми виписали на своєму прапорі: «Одна, єдина нероздільна, вільна, самостійна Україна від гір Карпатських аж до Кавказьких».

1. Що таке політична партія?

2. Засновником якої партії був Іван Франко?

3. Які погляди відстоювали члени Української радикальної партії?

4. Яка політична партія була заснована в 1900 році в Харкові?

5. Які погляди відстоювали члени Революційної української партії?

6. Хто був організатором Революційної української партії?

7. У якому році була створена Українська соціалістична партія?

8. Які ідеї відстоювали члени Української соціалістичної партії?

9. З якою метою було створено Товариство українських поступовців?

10. Яка ідея проголошувалася в програмі Революційної української партії?

1. Намалюйте в зошиті таблицю та заповніть її.

Назва політичної партії

Дата заснування

Цікаво знати

Українські політичні партії зверталися до народу через листівки чи пресу. У 1902 році члени Революційної української партії подали прохання до міністра внутрішніх справ Російської імперії про дозвіл на видання газети «Селянин». Проте отримали відмову.

Партійці обійшли заборону міністра. Вони організували друк газети за кордоном і таємно ввозили її на територію України. На сторінках газети розміщувалися не тільки політичні матеріали. Також друкували оповідання про життя селян.